Beyond "Hero" and "Villain"—an analysis of My Hero Academia on the relations and impacts between individualism, collectivism, and heroism in modern society
My Hero Academia is a Japanese superhero Shonen manga that has attained high popularity both in Japan and worldwide. As the story approaches the end, its societal reflections become more evident. Based on the released content from chapter one to chapter 369, this article investigates the connections between My Hero Academia's "story world" and the real world using sociology and social psychology. On this premise, the article analyzes the three major ideologies embodied in the story—individualism, collectivism, and heroism. Finally, this article attempts to interpret My Hero Academia's commentary on heroism in modern society and the significance of such commentary from the aspect of social philosophy.
A "social story" combining Japanese Shonen manga and American superheroes
From the 2008 Iron Man, which launched the business model of thematic films named "Marvel Cinematic Universe"[1], to Avengers: End Game, released in 2019, which had a worldwide box-office gross of nearly $2.8 billion[2], the "superhero" genre originated in the United States has become a massive part of pop culture in the 21st century. Meantime, "Shonen manga," as part of the Japanese Otaku culture, has also begun to spread worldwide outside of Japan[3][4].
On July 7, 2014, a Shonen manga titled My Hero Academia (MHA)[5] began its serialization in the Japanese manga magazine Weekly Shōnen Jump. Then it started receiving seasonal animation adaptions from the Japanese anime studio Bones in 2016[6]. To date, MHA has gained enormous popularity worldwide[3]. The success of MHA reflects not only on its commercial performance but also on the recognition it received from professional critics: MHA won the "SUGOI JAPAN Award" for Best Manga in 2017[7] and the 31st Harvey Awards for Best Manga in 2019[8] as well.
Combining two present trends, "Shonen manga" and "superhero," is one of the essential factors to MHA's success. Meanwhile, both mainstream superhero works and battle Shonen mangas have one attribute in common—"surrealism," i.e., the feature of "creating elements (settings) or developments that depart from reality." Both superheroes' bizarre superpowers and battle Shonen mangas' imaginative fighting styles are manifestations of this characteristic, and MHA's basic concept design is no exception. In a world where 80% of the population have superpowers called "Quirks," there are "Villains" who use their "Quirks" to harm society and "Heroes" who use their "Quirks" to fight the "Villains" under the law.
On the other hand, due to the surreal elements, the fictional world created by the superhero works and battle Shonen mangas, i.e., the "story world," is often alienated from the real world in which the readers (audience) live. This gap can lead to the fact that even if the "solutions" proposed by the author are "convincing" enough to resolve the conflicts in the story, they may not apply to the real world (and, in fact, they often are not). Many of the more thoughtful works in this genre end up conveying metaphysical statements on core values (e.g., the philosophical interpretation of "equivalent exchange" in Fullmetal Alchemist[9]). These themes can provide spiritual inspiration and even ideological edification to the audience. However, they can hardly be treated as sociological views that are "close enough to reality" to be studied at the academic level.
Then, does this mean superhero works and battle Shonen mangas are incapable of in-depth sociological reflection and discussion? The answer is no. There do exist traditional superhero works with realistic social reflections. One of the most iconic and well-known examples is the graphic novel Watchmen, written by Alan Moore and illustrated by Dave Gibbons and John Higgins[10]. Watchmen's literary content and thematic reflections are not the focus of this article. Nonetheless, it is undeniable that one of Watchmen's momentous achievements is that, after introducing the surreal element, superheroes, it still manages to carry a serious discussion of human society in reality during the Cold War era and provide the author's central commentary. Although the superheroes and supervillains in Watchmen do not exist in the real world, they are the crystallization and embodiment of realistic ideologies and social roles, making the "story world" of Watchmen a "hypothesis" grounded on a realistic basis.
The success of Watchmen exemplifies the possibility of explaining the real world with superhero literature that contains surrealism. This article argues that MHA is also a work with surrealism that discusses the social aspects of society in sufficient depth without being detached from reality, which makes it a rare case among many battle Shonen mangas in recent years. In particular, MHA stresses the connotation of heroism under the impact of individualism and collectivism in modern society.
This article first examines the symbolic techniques MHA uses to connect the "surreal" settings with the social elements of the real world. Then, this article describes the "story world" that MHA constructs from these settings and explains how it relates to the real world. Together, these two sections establish that MHA has the foundation for in-depth analysis in a social context. On this basis, by dissecting MHA's main plotline and affiliated imagery, this article deconstructs the embedded social issues and analyzes the statement MHA provides.
From "Quirk" to individuality, from "Quirk Society" to our society
The most basic setting of MHA is the superpower called "Quirk." "Quirk" is not only a plot device for MHA as a battle Shonen manga but also closely related to the story's theme. In the story, a character's "Quirk" not only affects their fighting style but is also a type of individuality, which is what the original Japanese word for "Quirk (個性)" means in real life. Therefore, it is clear from the literal meaning of "Quirk" in MHA that it connects to "individuality" in the real world. Further, "Quirk" is one of the core elements that constitute the "self-identity" of the characters in the story. "Self-identity" is the collection of an individual's beliefs about themselves, which includes "self-image (including appearance, behavior, etc.)," "self-esteem," "ideal self," and "social identity"[11][12]. Since "Quirk" as a personal feature can affect a character's appearance and behavior in MHA, it is directly related to the character's self-image first and foremost.
"I'm not miserable at all! When I'm happy, I smile. And just like how everyone else kisses the people they love ... when I love someone, I suck their blood." (Himiko Toga, Chapter 226, MHA)[A]
"Quirk" is more than an additional "power." It is a rudimentary but complex "individuality" tied to MHA's characters in reference to how individualities (such as race, physical appearance, and nationality) affect a person's identity in the real world. Accordingly, the connotation of "Quirk" goes beyond mere superpower, making it a crucial part of what constitutes an individual's self. This design of "Quirk" makes it possible to apply Social Identity Theory to the analysis of the "story world" of MHA—"Quirk Society."
Social Identity Theory[12] was developed in the late 20th century to explain intergroup relations[13]. The theory suggests that in modern societies, people are divided into different groups because of their differences (i.e., differences in individuality). Such a process is named "social classification." The similarities between individuals in the same group, as well as the differences between individuals from different groups, are exaggerated. Individuals in the same group may adjust their characteristics according to the group norm to fit in better, eventually increasing members' sense of identity and overall group cohesiveness. On the other hand, different groups are more prone to developing prejudice and even hostility toward each other. Eventually, the part of self-identity determined by the group to which one belongs is called "social identity."
To a certain extent, Social Identity Theory has succeeded in explaining the formation of prejudicial and discriminatory ideologies such as "sexism," "racism," and "nationalism." Furthermore, Social Identity Theory reveals the trend of intergroup relations that is both from "chaos" to "order" and from "diversity" to "singularity." Although every individual in the world is technically "unique," they still tend to give up some of their uniqueness and form or join a more "coherent" group in order to achieve the survival mode of "in-group versus out-group."
For an initially unified social system without groups, it is noteworthy that after the system forms groups, the gaps of social influence between the newly-formed groups do not necessarily decline, even though the absolute power of each group grows compared to individual members. In reality, the existence of social classes shows that this gap often widens as different social groups emerge and develop. Consequently, for an individual born into a society in a dynamic equilibrium, belonging to a group also means inheriting the corresponding social status and role by necessity.
As we can see in the "story world" of MHA, the "Quirk Society" formed after the emergence of "Quirk" also follows Social Identity Theory based on "Quirk"—people are categorized in the society because of their "Quirk," and given social identities accordingly. Individuals born with a strong "Quirk" are encouraged to be "Heroes"; those born with a dangerous "Quirk" are more likely to be ostracized; those who do not even have a "Quirk" are often seen as the "most useless" of human beings. A more detailed discussion of such phenomena is in Section IV.
What "Quirk" is to "Quirk Society" is what individuality is to our society. Like the real world, which is "governed" by social identity, the colorful facade of the "Quirk Society" is told by those who enjoy their social identity. Meanwhile, those who "suffer from" their social identity always remember layers of dark crevasses between the colorfulness. People living in a "Quirk Society" are connected and separated by their "Quirk." The "power" that can break such shackles is the answer that MHA seeks to explore.
The concurrent totalitarianism and individual heroism in the midst of chaos
The story of MHA begins in the "Hero Society" of Japan. In this surreal "Quirk Society," there are two "bipolar opposites"—"Heroes" and "Villains." However, this surreal "story world" was once much closer to the real world in a not-so-distant "past." The "singularity" that pushed the "story world" of MHA into a "Quirk Society" was precisely "Quirks."
The process by which "individuality" emerged was not a slow and gradual human evolution, for it spread like a "contagious disease" among the originally "Quirkless" people. Thus, like the panic generated by the epidemics in the real world, a social classification based on a simple, crude, and honest "standard"—"whether carrying a 'Quirk'" began. At this time, "Quirk" was still not seen as a new type of "human individuality" but as an "abnormality" that alienated humans into the inhuman.
"Back then ... The norms of what it meant to be human suddenly collapsed, and with that ... laws became meaningless. Societal progress halted." (All Might, Chapter 59, MHA)
As described by Social Identity Theory, when this social classification formed, the division of social groups drastically changed as it caused prejudice and discrimination. "The inhuman" who had just acquired "Quirk" became socially oppressed and disadvantaged (the "tragedy of 'The Mother of Quirks'" mentioned in MHA's chapter 232 is such an example). The social order was in chaos, and the government's authority was at stake.
Immediately afterward, within those "inhuman" groups, a new social classification was made: "Villains" who decided to use their "Quirk" for plundering and aggression, and "Vigilantes" who chose to use this "power" for justice. A "simple" moral orientation diverged the already discriminated "inhuman" group into "good" and "bad" factions. Unlike the social identity of "Villain," "Vigilantes" not only had to endure discrimination from so-called "humans" but also had to continue to carry out the "righteousness" in their hearts. Thus, "Vigilante" embodies a type of "self-sacrifice spirit" that is not bound by the value judgments of the "majority" in society. Their "putting one's right to interpret and enforce 'justice' above the ruling class (the government)" embodies an inclination toward individualism. Thus, the "Vigilantes" who "acted on justice" according to their own will and moral standpoint symbolize the prototypical heroism based on individualism. However, the emergence of "Vigilantes" could not fundamentally save the collapsing social environment. Only by accommodating the existing social system and norms to the new type of "individuality," namely "Quirk," could Japan return to a stable social environment.
Either by coincidence or by fate, a young man received a "Quirk"—an "Quirk" that can forcedly "take" and "give" other "Quirks"—All For One. Through this "Quirk," he could give everyone the "freedom" to choose to be "human" or "the inhuman" as long as they make a contract with him. The show-up of this young man offered a chance to restore the social order to shattered Japan quickly. As a result, a "Quirk capitalist" called "All For One" (AFO) arose.
Ostensibly, by trading "Quirks," AFO gave people the social identity they desired. Deep down, these people walked on a path to "sell their souls" to AFO. Those who accepted the contract obtained an "opportunity" to change their living condition at the cost of personal autonomy. Such a way of manipulating individuals is defined as "Alienation of Labor" in Karl Marx's Philosophical Manuscripts on Economics 1844[14]. Through this process of alienation, individuals lose their humanity and become mechanized parts of the division of labor. Not only were "Quirks" not treated as "individualities," but they also became "functions of tools." AFO did bring a new order to the once chaotic "Quirk Society," but it achieved so through "Quirk exploitation" and "Quirk manipulation," only to accumulate his capital and power. As more and more people and parties were manipulated by AFO, gradually, AFO's social role was no longer just a "capitalist" but a "dictator" who controlled Japan, an "All For One" being.
Nevertheless, one person would not bend to the will of AFO—he was AFO's brother, Yoichi Shigaraki. By coincidence or by fate, with the indirect "help" from AFO, Yoichi Shigaraki acquired a "Quirk" that is the opposite of his brother's. A "Quirk" that "cannot take" and "cannot be taken"—One For All (OFA). At first, OFA's power was simply bequeathing itself and the "physical strength" stockpiled by its holder to others. However, through the hardship and sacrifice of generations of OFA wielders who shared the same beliefs as Yoichi Shigaraki, OFA has been protected, passed on, and nurtured. Finally, the eighth holder of OFA, Toshinori Yagi, defeated AFO for the first time as the "Hero" named All Might.
Holders of OFA are driven by the same "personal will" as the "Vigilantes" who emerged almost simultaneously. The difference is that OFA allows an individual's will to transcend the individual's physical limitations through persistent "inheritance." In a social environment oppressed by an absolute ruler, a single will that emerged from one individual and then became the crystallization of many people's "strength" eventually held the chance to compete with the powerful entity that "controlled" the entire society. Although both "control" and "inheritance" are ways of influencing social groups, the former neglects the value of individuals' wills compared to the latter. "Quirk" is not a supplementary "superpower" that can just be transferred to or taken away from a person at will; it is part of "self-identity," a manifestation of individual will. From a philosophical point of view, this also explains the "history" that "AFO with numerous "superpowers" was defeated by a single "Quirk" named "OFA."
The flashy "Hero Society" and the accumulating "malice of the minority"
At the early stage of "Quirks" emerging, the breakdown of social norms and the sudden shift of social identities destroyed the original social structure as well as the entity with institutional power (government) established around such structure. On the contrary, the individual influence based on "Quirk" greatly expanded. As a result, this era of chaos saw the emergence of "Villains" and "Vigilantes," social roles that fought each other on the surface of society, as well as AFO and OFA, two ideologies opposed to each other behind the chaos. As the government recruited some "Vigilantes" to become part of the state apparatus as professional "Heroes" who use their "Quirks" to maintain order, and as All Might almost single-handedly dismantled the dominance of AFO, the darkness and chaos that once shrouded the society gradually dissipated. Japan finally headed into a new era of "Quirk Society"—a "Hero Society," and All Might became the "Symbol of Peace."
"Restricting citizens' freedom of using "Quirks" in public areas" and "entitling 'Heroes' to use their 'Quirk' for maintaining law and order" are the two fundamental policies of "Hero Society" under the Japanese government. These two regulations to "Quirk" seemingly maintained social stability and served as a signal to "encourage the use of 'Quirk' for good," but in reality, they simultaneously sowed the seeds of new social issues.
The word hero (the etymology of the Japanese word "ヒーロー (Hero)" in MHA) originated from the ancient Greek word "ἥρως," meaning "protector"[15]. The word's core concept, "protect," embodies a quality based on personal will—the spirit to protect. Therefore, the criteria for being a hero in real life are generally based on qualities derived from the mindset of "protection" and "rescue," such as "courage," "selflessness," "perseverance," "integrity," and so on. In essence, heroism has nothing to do with any type of individuality other than one's spiritual quality, and naturally, it also has nothing to do with "Quirk." During the chaotic era in Japan, the "Vigilantes" and OFA holders who stood up for justice (presumably) did all have "Quirks." However, the reason that made them become "Heroes" was not their "Quirk" but their will to fight for justice.
Arriving at "Hero Society," the illegal "Vigilantes" were transformed into legal (and professional) "Heroes." Admittedly, converting "Vigilantes" into "Heroes" can indeed regulate some potential extremist "Vigilantes" born out of radical personal wills. Besides, it is true that "Heroes" are an effective way of using "Quirk" against criminals who already utilize "Quirks" to commit crimes. However, when the concept of "hero" is confined to a particular social role or even a governmental function, rather than being an achievable mental state, heroism is reduced from a spiritual value to a work ethic. In a performance-oriented workplace, work ethic is often easier to compromise than work skills. The establishment of a "Professional Hero System" resulted in a "Hero Society" with fewer "extreme heroes" but more "superficial heroes."
On top of this, there is a more severe problem with the "Professional Hero System." After "Hero" became a type of civil servant, a factor even more prioritized than "heroism" was implicitly added to the standard of "Hero" due to the government's policy regarding the use of "Quirks"—"the privilege only 'Heroes' have about using 'Quirks.'" The presence of this factor not only correlated the criteria for "Hero" to "Quirk" but also aggravated the bias against different "Quirks." To become a "Hero" in "Hero Society," an individual needs to have not only a "Quirk" but also a suitable "Quirk" for being a "Hero." Consequently, a social classification of "the fit to become a 'Hero'" and "the unfit to become a 'Hero'" based on the "Quirk" manifested. Those who had the "right Quirk" were encouraged to become "Heroes," those who had the "wrong Quirk" were discouraged, and those who did not have the "Quirk" were "unable" to become "Heroes." The young people who dreamed of becoming "heroes" had to face different realities simply because of their "Quirks."
"A Pro should always be ready to risk his life. Without 'power,' can one become a 'Hero'? No, I should think not." (All Might, Chapter 1, MHA)
The correlation between "Quirk" and "Hero" did not only directly impact the definition of "Hero" but also indirectly affected the concept of "Villain." Due to the chaotic era, the concept of "Hero" evolved from "Vigilante" and contained the image of "Justice." In contrast, the idea of "Villain" was imprinted with the notion of "Sinfulness." When "standards of 'Hero'" in "Hero Society" were bound to "Quirks," being the opposite of "Hero" under the mainstream value, "characteristics of 'Villain'" were also associated with "Quirks." The prejudice that "as there exist moral 'Quirks' which beget 'righteous Heroes,' there must also exist immoral 'Quirks' which beget 'evil Villains'" was formed. This sort of prejudice that objective individualities are intertwined with subjective value judgments, even though portrayed in a "Quirk Society," is also prevalent in the real world.
The diversity of individuals resulting from "Quirks" should have been comprehended and accommodated by "Hero Society," a supposed more progressive society. However, as the meaning of "Hero" deviated from a notion that embodied individual will and became a concrete component of the social structure, it fueled the systemic discrimination against "Quirks" in "Hero Society." As discussed in Section II, since the influence of "Quirk" on self-identity is multifaceted, other personal characteristics related to 'Quirks' are also implicated in discrimination against "Quirks." From character discrimination to personality discrimination, from discrimination based on appearance to discrimination based on habitual behavior, etc. Various kinds of bias and discrimination stemming from "Quirk" divide individuals in society into "potential Villains" and "non-potential Villains," leading to another social classification. Whether they ended up as "Heroes" or "Villains," every child born into this "Hero Society" would be judged for their "Quirk," which most children tend to manifest between the ages of only four and five.
"Hero," which has become a "profession," and heroism, which has become a "work ethic," have also had a subtle influence on the general public. To explain this effect, let us draw an analogy with the real-life situation of "environmental awareness." Environmental consciousness is, in principle, a kind of consciousness that everyone can develop regardless of their external capability. However, the emergence of various public welfare activities and commercial products advertised in the name of "environmental protection" has bred the idea that "by simply participating in these activities or buying related products, people will help 'protect the environment.'" Admittedly, these activities and products may actually help protect the environment. Nonetheless, suppose a person supports these activities and products but continually wastes resources daily. In that case, they are not environmentally conscious but only have the "illusion" of "relying on superficial elements to preserve the image that they are environmentally conscious." Leaning too much on external entities to "reimagine" one's self-potential is more of a mental self-deprecation than a psychological self-compensation. The scenario of relying on "Heroes" in MHA's "Hero Society" to achieve heroism reflects the terrible consequences of feeding such an individual mentality that eventually surfaces on the societal level. From the necessary dependence on "Heroes" to maintain public safety to the unnecessary dependency on "Heroes" to support the entirety of society. In the end, even helping a child lost on the street has become the "professional duty" of a "Hero" or "police officer."
"If only ... if only ... I thought the itch was gone. If only, back then ... someone, anyone, had reached out to help." (Tomura Shigaraki, Chapter 237, MHA)
On the one hand, the "Professional Hero System" facilitated the discrimination related to "Quirk"; on the other hand, the over-reliance on "Heroes" aggravated the indifference of society towards individuals. Under the cumulative effect of these two systemic defects, deep "rifts" were expanding under the flashy surface of "Hero Society." While the "majority" on the surface were soaking in the "light" of "The Hero Dream," the "minority" under the cliffs felt the "darkness" of this society every day and night. "Villains" were no longer predominated by individuals who did as they wanted with their "Quirks" because, gradually, those who had found it too difficult to survive within the system simply due to having a particular "Quirk" also began to embrace this new social identity.
More ironically, trying to prevent extreme "vigilantes," the "Professional Hero System" ended up creating the "Hero Killer" Stain because of the "corrupted" "Heroes." Although Stain was not as physically powerful as All Might, he had a will that could match All Might's, which could light a fire in people's hearts. The "fire" that Stain sparkled was "Change the status quo." Under Stain's influence, the "minorities," who were abandoned by "Hero Society" for various reasons, joined the Villain group called the "League of Villains" because of the same goal—"to change 'Hero Society.'" Moreover, the person pulling the string behind the build-up of "League of Villains" was no other than AFO. AFO learned from the past. Instead of ignoring the wills of individuals, he used them to destroy the peace All Might created by exploiting those minorities' common discontent and resentment against "Hero Society."
"The evil of individual thugs isn't worth much, but when it's united by a single will ... it'll become a hundred times more dangerous." (Gran Torino, Chapter 57, MHA)
A society "torn apart" by sides and a collective heroism "taken control" by stances
"Collective-exploited individuals" and "collective-polarized individuals"
All Might is one of the significant characters in MHA, and his importance is multifaceted. In addition to being an OFA holder, the pinnacle of Pro "Heroes," and the mentor of Izuku Midoriya, one of his most important roles in the early stage of the story is being the "Symbol of Peace." The concept of "Symbol of Peace" originated from the idea of " becoming a spiritual pillar" by a young boy, Toshinori Yagi, before he became All Might. In a way, this "spiritual pillar" gave OFA a new mission, making it not only the ultimate weapon against AFO but also a "peace deterrent." Hence, All Might becoming the "Symbol of Peace" also marked the shift of emphasis on heroism from "individualism" to "collectivism." His mission was no longer just to fulfill OFA's will to defeat AFO but also to maintain the peace and stability of the "Quirk Society," or more precisely, the peace and stability of the "majority" in this society.
Although All Might stopped many threats that emerged in "Hero Society" through his strength, objectively, his deed had not progressed the system of "Hero Society" itself. On the contrary, the "Symbol of Peace" that he created was exploited by the Japanese government and diminished from a "spiritual pillar" that inspired individuals into "political propaganda" to pacify the masses. The slogan "everything will be fine as long as All Might is still here" gave people a sense of hope and security at the beginning. However, over time, it became a self-indulgence of people who were comfortable with their conditions and ignored societal problems. If it was the "Professional Hero System" that provided the public a reason to rely on "Heroes," then it was the belief in the "Symbol of Peace" that instilled the public a psychological dependency on "Heroes." The tragedy of "'Heroes' failing to save Tenko Shimura in time" is a coincidence that might not happen to every individual but is an inevitability bound to occur to the minority of this society. Similar tragedies will always appear as long as the status quo of "Hero Society" persists. Thus, no matter how hardworking and selfless All Might was or how long he delayed his retirement, he could not shine the "light" into the dark recesses of this society's rifts—the systemic defects caused by such a social structure.
Finally, "Hero Society" witnessed All Might's "last" victory—The Battle of Kamino. However, the cost of this victory far outweighed the rewards. AFO, even though "defeated" once again, was a "catalyst" for the social unrest but not the fundamental cause of "Hero Society"'s systemic problems. On the contrary, All Might had been the greatest obstacle to destroying "Hero Society," yet was effectively eliminated by AFO along the way. All Might's existence had been functioning as a "mighty duct tape" for "Hero Society," maintaining social stability but also invisibly covering up the systemic faults of the society. All Might's retirement indicated the expiration of such an "external force" that had supported "Hero Society" for so long. The "rifts" in society began to merge and were developing rapidly.
On the one hand, having lost All Might as the "Symbol of Peace," "Heroes" began to do their best to suppress the increasing criminal acts. On the other hand, Tomura Shigaraki successfully "awakened" under the grooming of AFO and gathered more and more "minorities" between the "rifts." Among these gathered individuals, some were striving to change their lives; some aimed to change society; some were seeking a new home; some were seeking ... Although each person had a different specific goal, they had been united by the will to destroy "Hero Society" and became part of the "Paranormal Liberation Front." "Paranormal Liberation Front" is no longer just an instance of "individual Villains" transformed into "an armed Villain group" but also a representation of individualism replaced by collectivism under the impact of social identity. At the same time, a similar effect begins to transpire within the "Heroes." As there is a vast gap of strength between each Hero and All Might, "Heroes"' fighting styles are gradually shifting from the initial "solo fighting" to "team-up battling," and the cohesiveness of "Heroes" as a social group has reached an unprecedented level.
Finally, the government, aware of the formidable threat posed by the "Paranormal Liberation Front," embarked on the most prominent collective warfare mission ever undertaken by "Heroes" in Japan's history. The sole objective of "Heroes" was to dismantle the "Paranormal Liberation Front" before its attack to maintain the peace and serenity of "Hero Society." At this very moment, "Heroes" and "Villains" were "polarized" into two respectively highly unified and mutually exclusive states under the effect of social identity—hence, a dichotomy between "maintaining the status quo" and "breaking the status quo." Under this strong antagonism, there was only one way for both sides to interact with each other—resorting to violence. Such violence started an all-out war that tore apart "Hero Society."
No absolute "just enforcement," but absolute "mythic violence"
Typically, the justness of actions is the primary criterion distinguishing heroes from villains. However, when two clashing parties both resort to violence, how can one determine which party represents justice and should be called "Heroes"? In legal philosophy, there can be two ways to determine the justness of violence. Under the code of "Natural Law"[16], the action is regarded just as long as the motive (i.e., the end) is justified because, fundamentally, Natural Law does not criticize an individual's means but treats it as a "fact" that conforms to the laws of nature. Conversely, if one believes "only the means can justify the action," they follow the concept of "Positive Law"[16]. Under such a principle, an individual's action is judged by an authoritative interpretation (e.g., the law) based on their manner of action, irrelevant to their intention.
However, both Natural Law and Positive Law have limitations. If only Natural Law were followed, acts of war would not be condemned, and diplomacy would no longer be the primary measure of handling international relations. If only Positive Law were imposed, the national law would become the absolute authority to define actions once a nation forms. Any attempt to challenge the law would be deemed an "unjust act" that violates the law. The principal cause of both Natural Law and Positive Law's limitations is that their concepts are inseparable from the dispute about the dominance between "the end" and "the means." Such a paradoxical relation prevents these two doctrines from providing the complete justification of violence, even by constantly picking one from the two to follow on a case-by-case basis. Notably, this incompleteness also reflects on the contradictory nature of collective human violence in history: when governments succeeded in violently suppressing rebellious masses, these masses were described as "reactionaries" according to the existing law, and when rebellious masses succeeded in violently overthrowing governments, the violence was then legalized as a "just revolution" by the new law that protects their interests.
In his Critique of Violence[17], philosopher Walter Benjamin referred to these two adversarial categories of violence as "the violence to maintain the existing law" and "the violence to establish new law," i.e., "law-preserving violence" and "law-making violence." In the context of a specific historical moment, one category might have been considered "more justice" than the other. However, looking back at the trajectory of history, one can discover that these two forms of violence together have imprisoned human beings in a cycle of mutual violence. In essence, both "law-preserving violence" and "law-making violence" are violence bound by the "authoritative concept" of "the law." Benjamin called this type of violence "mythic violence." In fact, the concept of "mythic violence" is hinted at early in MHA's story through the words of the central antagonist, Tomura Shigaraki.
"'Heroes' and 'Villains' both thrive on violence, but we're still categorized. 'You're good.' 'You're evil.' That's how it is!! Symbol of Peace? Hah!! In the end you're just a tool for violence, made to keep us down! And violence only breeds more violence." (Tomura Shigaraki, Chapter 19, MHA)
"Violence breeds violence" is the core attribute of mythic violence. At that moment, Tomura Shigaraki only used this idea to provoke All Might but did not internalize it into his own beliefs, which led to postponing the whole conversation. Nonetheless, the development of MHA's story followed precisely such a pattern.
Looking back at the "history" of MHA's "story world," one shall notice that when the "Vigilantes" during the chaotic era finally defeated the "Villains," the newly established society legitimized "Vigilantes" as "Heroes." "Heroes" became the "privileged" groups with the prerogative to "use their 'Quirks' for violent activities," and such violent actions were labeled "righteous" within the social norm. Jumping forward, if "Villains" who were born in the flawed system could then defeat "Heroes" and overthrow the current government, they would no longer be categorized as "Villains" as they rationalize themselves as the "liberation army."
It is unequivocal that Benjamin's discussion of violence in Critique of Violence revolves around the two opposing social groups, "the masses" and "the government." In the story of MHA, although "Villains" and "Heroes" became two adversarial groups in a conflicting relationship equally intense as "the masses and the government" hold, they do not correspond to the same social classes. "Villains" do not fully represent the masses because they are "merely" the oppressed "minority" in the existing social system, and "Heroes" are not the rulers who made the laws but only the "protectors of the law" in the opposite stance to "Villains."
However, by combining Social Identity Theory with Benjamin's theory of mythic violence, it becomes clear that the cycle of such violence is only a typical specialization of cyclic intergroup violence in society. In practice, the ruling class (the government) and the ruled class (the masses) are two social groups bipartitioning the society based on political power. This social classification leads to their intergroup relation being the power dynamics of "ruling and being ruled," which is an antagonistic relation closely conjoined to the social structure. The concept of "law" serves as an "authoritative concept" to sustain such a relation. When they come into violent conflicts, both sides compete for the sovereignty to interpret the law without questioning the "authority" of the concept of "law" itself. Thus, whether or not a "new society" is created, the relation between the groups is always a "relationship based on power." The mythic violence directed by the "law" can be viewed as a variant of intergroup violence under the dominance of the concept named "law."
Although the disagreement between "Professional Heroes" and "Villains" does not directly revolve around "ruling and being ruled," the confrontation between their bipolar stances had become so intense that it concerned the structure of the entire "Quirk Society." Worse still, their stances, i.e., their standpoints, had "restricted" their relation to an antagonistic relationship that can only "resort to violence," thus creating a cycle of violence in the "Quirk Society." The cause of this consequence is "stance," dominating as an "authoritative concept." Therefore, this violent clash, in which "stance" replaces "law" and both sides fight for their "authority to the interpretation of both sides' stance," can be defined as the mythic violence, in a broader sense, generated by stance. Being controlled by the concept named "stance," the will of the individual is incarcerated, the life of the individual is held hostage, and the individuals are "forged" into "components" that carry out the stance of the collective.
Consequently, in this "all-out war" that changed "Hero Society," both sides considered their stance "just," their violence "justified," and their actions "heroic." Nevertheless, this "collective heroism," divided into two polarized sides because of stances, is in nature a mutual violence in which "life-and-death battling" replaces "resolving the differences," and even more so, another victory of the cycle of mythic violence. Eventually, the "Heroes"' society was destroyed, but a "Villains'" new world was not born. No one obtained a satisfying ending.
The genuine "good and evil" individuals beyond "collective stances"
It would be inaccurate to say that there was not a single beneficiary of this all-out war, and he who took advantage of the situation was AFO. As a catalyst for the clash and survivor from the chaotic era, AFO knew it was the time to manipulate and control humanity again after a war lost by both sides. So, as Japan fell into disorder, he finally broke out of his prison cell. If there exists an option worse than a society based on endless violence driven by polarized collective stances, it is perhaps a world where "everyone exists for the sake of one Demon Lord."
"This impending void era ... will give rise to a more perfect Demon Lord ... This will be the story of how I become the greatest Demon Lord of all!" (AFO, Chapter 297, MHA)
Although AFO's claimed ambitions are as "trite" as many classic villains in literature, his strategy for achieving this goal was far more sophisticated. From individual tragedies to the collective social identities and then to the systemic flaws of society, he added just enough "dominoes" at specific "positions" in the "four-dimensional coordinate system" of spacetime, cleverly coalescing the "cracks" in various parts of society. Subsequently, after removing the "Symbols of Peace" from the "game board," he did not have to "lift a finger" to watch "Hero Society" crumble. As the dust settled, he gladly and composedly returned to the "table."
AFO's way of accomplishing objectives is, to a certain degree, an embodiment of the collection of the most crafty and despicable people in society. Unlike most individuals, they are not shackled by various stances in society. However, they do not empathize nor sympathize with people who constantly hurt each other because of their stances. Instead, they celebrate this discovery as the "secret of success." They profit from the resulting conflicts by abusing the people controlled and radicalized by stances. Even if sometimes those who sacrifice for these manipulators have to pay with their lives.
AFO took advantage of this "total war" to regain his power and seized the opportunity to sweep away most of the "Heroes." However, someone among the "Heroes" also perceived the crux of the conflict.
"You killed so many of us! And hurt countless others. That is unforgivable. It's unforgivable ... And yet ... back there ... when you got swallowed up by All For One ... at that moment ... the look on your face ... You looked like you needed saving" (Izuku Midoriya, Chapter 295, MHA)
At the end of the war, Izuku Midoriya's seemingly "inopportune" monologue was the first time MHA directly unveiled to the reader the blind spot of this tragic war that almost all the characters had ignored: beyond the irreconcilable and polarizing stances is a living human being.
Beyond "Hero" and "Villain," the heroism named "All For All"
When an individual's will breaks through a stance's barrier, the authoritativeness of the concept of "stance" itself is challenged. However, a will does not equal an action. Only if a "power" lives independent of and resists the regime of mythic violence can it break the cycle of mythic violence. In his exposition of mythic violence, Benjamin proposed a type of "violence" that is adversarial toward mythic violence, which he named "divine violence"[17]. Since the generalized mythic violence is the violence "controlled" by a certain "authoritative concept," the generalized divine violence is then an unalloyed violence that exists only to break free from such conceptual "control."
Since the mythic violence caused by stance is the violence that arises when the unified stance of the collective absorbs individuals' wills, the key to breaking out of this "violence" is to restore the original wills of the individuals: to understand the "inner appeals" of conflicting individuals. "Inner appeal" refers to the need deep inside a person with a free will after their stance is stripped away. For example, when an individual loses their job and is ostracized by society because of a mistake, their aspiration is only to "gain others' trust again." When they "have to" start robbing banks as a "Villain" to make a living, their aspiration becomes "commit crimes to survive" with the stance of "Villain." When they join the "Paranormal Liberation Front," their aspiration becomes "destroy 'Hero Society' in order to live" under the stance of this organization. When a "Hero" encounters this person, their understanding of this person is only confined to the outermost "demand"—"destroy 'Hero Society'" that conflicts most with the "Heroes"' stance. However, the root cause of their path to becoming a "Villain," which is also connected to their initial "inner appeal," "not being able to get a second chance in society," was overlooked. As a result, "Heroes"' so-called "righteous execution" turns into law-preserving violence.
As the protagonist of MHA, the "Quirkless" Izuku Midoriya initially did not belong to any social context directly related to "Quirk." When he inherited OFA from All Might, he acquired the social identity of "Hero" and truly entered the mainstream environment of the "Quirk Society." However, at the same time, he also became part of the law-preserving force in the cycle of violence caused by "Quirk." Inheriting OFA changed Izuku Midoriya's world, but it also made him realize that one key factor can significantly impact a person's development. As he fought more "Villains," he began to think about the reasons why these "people" had become "Villains" in the first place, as opposed to the other "Heroes" who just took their stance of "defeating 'Villains'" for granted. After his encounter with Tomura Shigaraki on the battlefield, he came up with the idea of "changing the meaning of OFA." In place of following the mission that had been passed down from OFA to "kill the one who inherited AFO, i.e., Tomura Shigaraki," he wanted to see Tomura Shigaraki as "a human being" whom AFO imprisoned and try "saving" him with the power of OFA. At this moment, not only did Izuku Midoriya break through the stance established by the previous OFA holders, but he also saw through the innermost personal will of Tomura Shigaraki—a child who craved to be saved.
Looking back at "Hero Society," it becomes more apparent that most of the individuals who eventually became "Villains" started with the basic need to live as a "human" in this society. Nevertheless, under the dual effect of the "Hero" stance and the "Villain" stance, their appeal gradually shifted towards "destruction of 'Hero Society.'" What Izuku Midoriya aimed to do after the war was to break through these stances and understand the "inner appeals" of "Villains" as human beings. In this way, the captivity of one's own will under stance is shattered, and the humanitarianism of "putting people first" replaces the authoritarianism of "stance determines everything." Furthermore, the action of helping and saving the other side through one's own power after understanding their "inner appeal" is a step toward changing the relationship between "Villains" and "Heroes" from "antagonism" to "supply and demand," a movement that can actually break the cycle of violence between "Villain" and "Hero." The spirit that drives this behavior is the heroism that "transcends stance." By this means, OFA is no longer a "curse" that places Izuku Midoriya in the predestined role of "OFA against AFO," but a "power" that aids Deku (デク, Izuku Midoriya) in practicing his heroism.
The action under the heroism that "transcends stance" is indeed a "violence" that is "divine." However, as powerful as OFA is, relying on Izuku Midoriya alone to restore "Hero Society" is unrealistic. The confrontation between "Heroes" and "Villains" shook Japan, yet they were not the majority of the society. The substantial majority are the public, i.e., the citizens, who were not at the center of the conflict but were affected by it. Among them were those who had unfulfilled dreams of being "Heroes" and those who had not become "Villains" despite their long-standing grievances. These people were the "origin" of "Heroes" and "Villains," but eventually, what they became was the watching "audience."
When the all-out war between "Heroes" and "Villains" shattered the peace of "Hero Society," a chaotic but "fresh" turning point presented in front of the public's eyes. They could choose to become "Villains" manipulated by AFO, "refugees" protected by the government, or continue to be "bystanders" watching from the sidelines after running away from "the battlefield." With both "Heroes" and "Villains" suffering a severe setback, their choice would determine which standpoint in the "Quirk Society" is getting promoted. However, if they could break through the "various noises" that appear on the surface of society and help the individuals behind those "barriers," they would gain a spirit that also goes beyond "Heroes" and "Villains." Unlike Izuku Midoriya's spirit that extends OFA, this spirit does not require any "strength" or a "Quirk." All it asks is the courage to lend a "helping hand" when you see someone "looked like they need saving." When more and more "individuals" with such a spirit come together, they will form a tremendous, bloodless force, a "divine violence" that can dismantle the conception of "stance." The author of this article would like to call it the heroism named "All For All."
From "Fiction" to "Reality," from MHA's future to our future
In fewer than 40 volumes, the story of MHA started with a "surreal" element named "Quirk" and has revealed an "imperfect" but "authentic" "Quirk Society." As a type of "individuality" that does not exist in real life, surprisingly, "Quirk" deduces real problems living in the real world by reflecting their variants at all levels of the "Quirk Society." From individual diversities to social identities; from coincidental experiences to systemic bias; from family tragedies to social class conflicts; from academic life to civil wars. This wide range of correspondence demonstrates that even with the introduction of the surreal element "Quirk," there is still a certain social structural similarity between MHA's "story world" and the real world. Such a similarity is "social identities based on individuality."
Through "Quirk," MHA uncovers an essential principle of society with individuality. When there is a systemic deviation against a particular type of individuality, an intense conflict of dichotomy will arise in society. This conclusion explains, to a certain extent, the social conflicts in the real world caused by individualities such as "ethnicity," "cultural background," "sex," and so on. These personal characteristics are "not good nor bad" in themselves, but they are closely related to the social structure, eventually becoming brutal conflicts of positions. Undeniably, these characteristics are not as distinct as "Quirk" in MHA's "story world." Even so, they have led to social conflicts just as extreme, if not more so, than those in MHA. From colonization to racial subjugation, from civil wars to religious wars ... It seems that "individuality" is making the world more chaotic as it is making it more colorful. Amid these wild conflicts are the loss of individuals' wills in the antagonistic confrontations and the annihilation of individuals' lives in the cycle of violence.
Does this mean the fate of a society with diverse individualities must be filled with brawls and conflicts controlled by "positions"? Does it mean that individuals defined by individualities can only choose between "self-sustainability relying on isolations" and "cycles of violence led by class conflict"? Or is the ideal future for humanity to treat "individuality" as a "disease" that needs to be eliminated in order to create a homogeneous mass with no diversity?
In the "story world" of MHA, whose timeline has moved past the real world, author Kohei Horikoshi presents the ideology of "All For All" (as this article calls it) from the perspective of heroism. Admittedly, MHA is a fictional literary work, not an academic treatise on sociology or social philosophy. However, by constructing a "story world" that is structurally consistent with the real world, the author enhances the "authenticity" of this fictional work in discussions of social issues, bridging the gap between literary creation and thought experiment.
Of course, just because an ideology is theoretically feasible does not mean it is necessarily achievable in reality. Both the individual action of "transcending positions" and the heroism of "All For All" are based on the success of "breaking through stances." Ultimately, however, "stance" as an "authoritative concept" implies that "breaking through a stance" is, on its own, an extremely challenging task. Is the process of an individual's will being consumed by the stance of a social group reversible? Is it always reversible? Is it always reversible for everyone? Additionally, each individual, as a non-static being, in the process of "accepting" the ideologies and values of various stances, their self-identity changes. Concerning this process, regardless called "growth" or "degeneration" (notice that the concept of "stance" is again "invading" the process of understanding such phenomenon), should it be considered a rebirth of the self, a loss of the self, or a superposition of the two? Based on the answer to this question, the judgment of the individual's "inner appeal" may also change. Even if the character Twice's "appeal" deserves sympathy, his "present demands" were inseparable from his stance under the "League of Villains." From the moment Hawks planned to betray Twice, it had already become futile to persuade him afterward because the two sides could never form a connection in hearts again. This is one of the greatest tragedies of MHA, which casts a shadow over the "future" of applying the "divine violence" of "breaking through stances."
"This is ... the story of how I became the greatest hero. And also ... the story of how we all became the greatest heroes." (Izuku Midoriya, Chapter 324, MHA)
A monologue full of "hope," but as the end of MHA draws near; it becomes more and more cryptic. Will Izuku Midoriya be able to "save" Tomura Shigaraki? Will the "Quirk Society" be able to break free from the cycle of violence and oppression? Will the "end of 'Quirk'" be inevitable? Most importantly, is "All For All" wishful thinking "fiction" or a reachable "reality"? The "answers" to these questions concern the future of MHA and perhaps our future as well.
Footnotes
[A] Quoted from My Hero Academia chapter 226. All paragraphs in this format (including here) are quoted from the chapters in the English version of My Hero Academia published by VIZ Media, the official publisher of My Hero Academia in North America.
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Beyond "Hero" and "Villain"—an analysis of My Hero Academia on the relations and impacts between individualism, collectivism, and heroism in modern society